Rollo May’s Theory of Personality and 4 Important Stages of Development

Introduction

Rollo May (1909–1994) is widely regarded as the father of existential psychotherapy, a discipline focused on addressing life’s inherent challenges by fostering self-awareness and authentic living. His theoretical framework is deeply rooted in existential philosophy, drawing inspiration from thinkers like Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Martin Heidegger.

Difference Between Existentialism and Humanism (Winston, 2015)

May’s work, particularly in Love and Will (1969), emphasizes the importance of balancing the polarities and tensions inherent in human existence. He described the human dilemma as an existential paradox, highlighting the inevitable contradictions in human life that give rise to growth and creativity (May, 1969).

May viewed these paradoxes, such as freedom versus responsibility and individuality versus community, not as problems to be resolved but as opportunities to transcend oneself through authentic engagement with life’s complexities (May, 1983). These tensions mark human existence, creating both suffering and the potential for deeper meaning.

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May’s Stages of Development

May proposed four stages of human development, emphasizing that they are not linear and may overlap or coexist at different points in a person’s life (May, 1967).

May’s Stages of Development

1. Innocence- This is a pre-egoic stage experienced during infancy, where the individual lacks self-consciousness and operates without deliberate choice or responsibility.
2. Rebellion- Marked by the desire for independence and inner strength, individuals in this stage often reject authority but may struggle with the responsibilities that accompany freedom.
3. Ordinary- This stage involves learning from mistakes and accepting adulthood’s responsibilities, although individuals may still find these demands overwhelming.
4. Creative- Representing authentic adulthood, this stage transcends egocentrism and allows individuals to express their creativity fully and genuinely.

May stressed that individuals might revisit these stages throughout their lives. For example, an adult might exhibit rebellious tendencies in certain contexts or moments of creativity during a midlife crisis. The non-linear nature of these stages underscores the complexity and fluidity of human development (May, 1983).

The Daimonic and Motivation

Central to May’s theory of motivation is the concept of the daimonic. The daimonic refers to the entire system of motives within an individual, encompassing both constructive and destructive elements (May, 1969). Derived from the Greek word daimon, meaning “spirit” or “little god,” the daimonic represents the innate drives that fuel human behavior.

• Daimons include lower needs such as food, safety, and sex, as well as higher aspirations like love, creativity, and purpose.
• A daimonic possession occurs when a specific motive becomes dominant, overshadowing other aspects of the self. For instance, an obsessive fixation on power or romantic love might distort an individual’s sense of balance and lead to destructive behavior.

One of the most significant daimons in May’s framework is Eros, which he described as a form of love that transcends mere physical desire. While Eros fosters growth and connection, it can become detrimental when it consumes the individual, resulting in obsession or dependency (May, 1969).

Love and Will

In Love and Will (1969), May explored the interplay between these two central aspects of human existence. He argued that love and will are complementary forces, each requiring the other to achieve balance and fulfillment.

Love- May identified different forms of love, including agape (selfless love), philia (friendship), and Eros. Eros, in particular, is a creative and life-affirming force, distinct from mere sexual attraction. It is a form of love that seeks connection and mutual growth.

Will- Defined as the ability to organize oneself to achieve goals, will represents the capacity for intentional action. May viewed will as closely tied to the ego and reality testing, emphasizing its role in fostering discipline and self-direction.

May identified three personality types based on the interaction between love and will-

May’s 3 Types of Personality

1. Neopuritan Type- This type exhibits excessive will but lacks love, resulting in rigidity and an overemphasis on control.
2. Infantile Type- Characterized by abundant wishes but insufficient will, this type is marked by passivity and an inability to act decisively.
3. Creative Type- A balanced personality that harmonizes love and will, enabling authentic self-expression and growth.

May argued that the creative type represents the ideal state of being, where love fuels the imagination and will directs action, resulting in meaningful contributions to oneself and society (May, 1969).

May on Anxiety

The Concept of Anxiety (Kierkegaard, 1980)

One of May’s most influential contributions is his exploration of anxiety. Building on Kierkegaard’s work, May defined anxiety as the apprehension caused by the realization of freedom and its inherent uncertainties. Unlike fear, which is a response to a specific threat, anxiety arises from the awareness of existential realities such as isolation, mortality, and the burden of choice (May, 1950).

Man’s Search for Himself (May, 1953)

May distinguished between two types of anxiety:

1.Normal Anxiety- A natural and unavoidable response to the challenges of existence. This form of anxiety is proportional to the situation and can motivate growth and self-awareness. For example, anxiety about making a significant life decision can prompt deeper reflection and lead to a more authentic choice.

2. Neurotic Anxiety- This occurs when individuals avoid confronting existential realities, leading to disproportionate or pathological reactions. Neurotic anxiety often manifests as phobias, compulsions, or excessive avoidance behaviors (May, 1983).

May argued that the key to overcoming anxiety lies in accepting it as an intrinsic part of life. By facing anxiety courageously, individuals can transcend their fears and achieve a deeper sense of purpose. This process, however, requires both self-awareness and the willingness to engage with life’s uncertainties. May described this engagement as the hallmark of authentic living, where individuals confront their limitations while striving for meaning and connection (May, 1950).

The Importance of Creativity and Authenticity

Creativity plays a central role in May’s philosophy. He believed that creativity arises from the tension between freedom and constraint, where individuals must navigate the paradoxes of existence to produce something meaningful. For May, creativity is not limited to artistic expression but encompasses all forms of authentic self-expression, from forming relationships to pursuing personal goals (May, 1975).

Authenticity, in May’s view, involves the courage to embrace one’s individuality while remaining open to the world. It requires individuals to accept their vulnerabilities and limitations, rather than succumbing to conformity or escapism. May argued that authenticity is a dynamic process, achieved through continuous self-reflection and engagement with life’s challenges (May, 1969).

Criticisms to Rollo May’s Theory

Rollo May’s existential psychotherapy has profoundly influenced psychology and philosophy, yet it has faced criticism-

1. Ambiguity in Concepts- one of the primary criticisms of May’s theory is the vagueness of its central concepts, such as the daimonic, Eros, and the interplay between love and will. This lack of precise definitions reduces the practicality of his ideas, especially for therapists seeking concrete, actionable frameworks (Hoffman, 2006).
2. Lack of Empirical Support- May’s theories are deeply rooted in existential philosophy, relying heavily on abstract ideas and subjective insights rather than scientific evidence. In contemporary psychology, where evidence-based practices dominate, this lack of empirical validation limits the credibility and applicability of his theories compared to structured approaches like cognitive-behavioral therapy (Cooper, 2003).
3. Cultural Limitations- May’s work has been criticized for its alignment with Western, individualistic values, emphasizing autonomy, self-actualization, and authenticity. These themes, central to existential philosophy, may not resonate with collectivist cultures that prioritize community, familial obligations, and interdependence. May risks overlooking the diverse ways in which cultures approach meaning, relationships, and selfhood (Christopher et al., 2001).
4. Overemphasis on Anxiety- May’s focus on anxiety as a fundamental aspect of human existence has also been criticized. While he differentiates between normal anxiety, which fosters growth, and neurotic anxiety, which inhibits it, some critics argue that his emphasis on anxiety can overshadow other emotional experiences central to the human condition, such as joy, contentment, or hope.

Conclusion

Rollo May’s contributions to existential psychology continue to resonate in contemporary therapeutic practice. His emphasis on the interplay between love and will, the role of anxiety in personal growth, and the importance of authenticity and creativity have influenced diverse fields, including psychotherapy, philosophy, and the arts. May’s work serves as a reminder that the challenges of existence are not obstacles to be avoided but opportunities for transformation and self-discovery.

References

Cooper, M. (2003). Existential Therapies. SAGE Publications.

Christopher, J. C., et al. (2001). Culture and Psychotherapy: Toward a Culturally Inclusive Existential Psychology. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 36(3), 20–25.

Hoffman, L. (2006). An Introduction to Existential Psychotherapy. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 46(3), 303–314.

Kierkegaard, S. (1980). The concept of anxiety: A simple psychologically orienting deliberation on the dogmatic issue of hereditary sin (R. Thomte & A. B. Anderson, Eds. & Trans.). Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1844)

May, R. (1950). The Meaning of Anxiety. New York: Ronald Press.

May, R. (1953). Man’s search for himself. W. W. Norton & Company.

May, R. (1967). Psychology and the Human Dilemma. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.

May, R. (1969). Love and Will. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

May, R. (1975). The Courage to Create. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

May, R. (1983). The Discovery of Being: Writings in Existential Psychology. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

Winston, C. N. (2015). Points of convergence and divergence between existential and humanistic psychology: A few observations. The Humanistic Psychologist, 43(1), 40–53.