Contents
Introduction to Positive Psychology Interventions
Positive psychology interventions (PPIs) are therapeutic approaches focused on promoting well-being and life satisfaction beyond merely reducing symptoms of distress (Carr, 2022).
Positive psychological interventions (PPIs) is the general term for a series of practical application activities designed to strengthen “positive resources” (van Zyl et al., 2017; Ng and Ong, 2022).
Definition of Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs)
Alan Carr & et al (2019) defined Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs) as interventions in which the goal of wellbeing enhancement was achieved through pathways consistent with positive psychology theory.
According to Schueller et al., ( 2014) Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs) are evidence-based interventions which have the primary aim of increasing wellbeing (not just reducing symptoms), that have been developed within any field of psychology, before or since the founding of positive psychology.
Pathways associated with Seligman’s PERMA theory include-
- Promoting savoring of Pleasurable Experiences,
- Fostering Engagement in absorbing skillful activities,
- Enhancing Relationships,
- Promoting Meaning and purpose,
- Supporting Accomplishments
Developed as part of positive psychology, pioneered by Martin Seligman, PPIs apply the principles of Seligman’s PERMA model- Positive emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment (Seligman, 2011). By focusing on strengths and well-being, rather than deficits, PPIs aim to foster resilience and positive functioning across different life domains (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
PERMA Model
Read More- PERMA Model
Aims of Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs)
According to Parks & Layous (2016) these included Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs) aimed for-
- Setting Valued Goals,
- Imaging One’s Best Possible Self,
- Using Signature Strengths,
- Savoring Past Or Present Pleasures,
- Finding Flow,
- Being Grateful For Positive Experiences,
- Developing Optimism,
- Strengthening Relationships,
- Practicing Kindness,
- Developing Grit,
- Being Courageous,
- Engaging In Post-Traumatic Growth,
- Practicing Forgiveness
Rationales for Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs)
Positive psychology interventions (PPIs) were developed based on the idea that wellbeing and psychopathology are related but separate (Westerhof & Keyes, 2010). PPIs are to enhance the wellbeing not just reduction of Psychopathological symptoms.
Traditional therapy focuses on reducing symptoms of mental illness, to make people symptom free, but people were dissatisfied with their lives. PPIs aim to improve wellbeing, complementing traditional therapy rather than replacing it (Seligman & Csikszentmihaly, 2002). While their main goal is to boost wellbeing, research suggests that improving wellbeing can also help prevent the return of symptoms and promote longer life.
Mechanisms of Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs)
PPIs rely on mechanisms that redirect attention from negative self-views to positive aspects, which builds resilience and resourcefulness. According to the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions proposed by Barbara Fredrickson, positive emotions widen individuals’ cognitive and behavioral repertoires, enhancing their personal resources and resilience (Fredrickson, 2001). PPIs encourage clients to use strengths-based activities, which create a feedback loop of positive emotion, reinforcing well-being and resilience (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002). Research indicates that positive emotions help individuals reframe stressful events, strengthen social connections, and ultimately enhance their capacity for emotional regulation and problem-solving (Seligman, 2011).
The key mechanisms in PPIs include-
- Positive Emotional Experiences – Increased positive emotions broaden perspectives and contribute to more adaptive responses to challenges, reinforcing resilience (Fredrickson, 2001).
- Strengths-Based Focus – Regularly using personal strengths fosters a sense of authenticity and fulfillment, helping individuals develop a more positive view of their abilities (Niemiec, 2014).
- Enhanced Relationships – Building gratitude and appreciation in interpersonal relationships strengthens social connections, creating supportive networks that can help during difficult times (Emmons & McCullough, 2003).
- Goal Setting and Meaning – Aligning daily actions with broader values enhances motivation and resilience, promoting sustained engagement and a greater sense of purpose (Steger, 2009).
Evidence of Effectiveness of Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs)
A meta-analysis conducted by Carr et al. (2021) analyzed the impact of PPIs across 347 studies involving over 72,000 participants and demonstrated that PPIs significantly improved well-being and reduced symptoms of anxiety and depression (Carr et al., 2021). Positive Psychotherapy, for example, was particularly effective when delivered in longer, face-to-face settings as opposed to self-help or online formats. This suggests that personal engagement and consistent reinforcement are essential for maximizing PPI efficacy (Rashid & Seligman, 2018).
Effect Size of Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs)
The effect of PPIs with an average of ten sessions over six weeks offered in multiple formats and contexts was evaluated. At post-test, PPIs had a significant small to medium effect on wellbeing (g = 0.39), strengths (g = 0.46), QoL (g = 0.48), depression (g = −0.39), anxiety (g = −0.62), and stress (g = −0.58). Gains were maintained at three months follow-up (Alan Carr & at el, 2019).
Short-term outcomes of PPIs indicate notable improvements in life satisfaction and reductions in stress. Benefits were generally sustained three months post-intervention; however, at the seven-month mark, some gains began to diminish (Carr et al., 2021). This decline underscores the importance of regular PPI reinforcement to maintain well-being benefits over time. Additionally, interventions using multiple PPIs, rather than single techniques, yielded higher efficacy. Integrating various techniques provides a more holistic approach to well-being, addressing diverse facets of an individual’s life and psychological needs (Carr, 2022).
Types of Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs)
1. Positive Psychotherapy
Positive Psychotherapy (PPT) was developed by Rashid and Seligman and is structured as a 15-session program designed to enhance well-being by building on personal strengths, addressing trauma, and pursuing meaningful goals (Rashid & Seligman, 2018). The therapy is divided into three core phases-
Phase 1- Building Mastery and Self-Efficacy –
This initial phase involves identifying and leveraging personal strengths. Through exercises such as gratitude journaling and creating a “positive introduction,” clients begin to build self-confidence and focus on their inherent capabilities rather than limitations (Rashid & Seligman, 2018).
Phase 2- Reappraising Negative Experiences –
In this phase, clients reframe negative experiences and gain a healthier perspective on past challenges. Techniques such as writing about past traumas in the third person help create psychological distance, allowing clients to reassess negative experiences in ways that lessen emotional distress (Carr, 2022).
Phase 3- Pursuing Meaning and Connection –
The final phase helps clients connect with their sense of purpose by encouraging them to apply their strengths to meaningful goals. By aligning their actions with intrinsic values and deepening personal relationships, clients develop a purpose-driven approach to life (Rashid & Seligman, 2018).
2. Well-Being Therapy
Well-Being Therapy (WBT), created by Giovanni Fava, 1999 is used primarily as a preventive intervention against depression and anxiety relapse (Fava, 1999). The therapy is grounded in Ryff’s six dimensions of psychological well-being- autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, purpose in life, self-acceptance, and positive relationships (Ryff, 1989). Fava’s approach emphasizes the following phases-
Three Phases
- Phase 1- Recognizing Moments of Well-Being – Clients are encouraged to document instances of well-being, noting feelings of competence, connection, and fulfillment. This exercise helps individuals recognize and replicate positive experiences in daily life.
- Phase 2- Addressing Negative Thoughts – Clients work to identify and manage intrusive thoughts using cognitive-behavioral techniques. Focusing on positive episodes rather than ruminating on negative ones helps reduce vulnerability to depressive relapse.
- Phase 3- Goal Setting for Growth – The final phase involves setting incremental goals across the six well-being dimensions. Clients aim to enhance resilience and personal growth by addressing core values and life goals (Ryff & Singer, 2008).
3. Quality of Life Therapy
Quality of Life Therapy (QOLT), developed by Michael Frisch, integrates cognitive-behavioral techniques with principles from positive psychology, focusing on enhancing life satisfaction through multiple dimensions (Frisch, 2006). This model is grounded in the CASIO framework, which stands for Circumstances, Attitudes, Standards, Importance, and Other areas.
The CASIO model provides a structured way to target life satisfaction across domains such as self-esteem, relationships, and work (Frisch, 2013). QOLT has been especially effective for individuals coping with life-altering situations, including those awaiting organ transplants, as it enables them to find satisfaction across varied aspects of life (Carr, 2022).
4. Fordyce’s Happiness Program
Michael Fordyce’s Happiness Program, developed in the 1970s, offers a structured approach to increasing happiness based on 14 core principles. These principles encourage active living, socializing, engaging in meaningful work, setting realistic goals, and managing negative emotions (Carr, 2022). Key tenets include staying active, organizing daily tasks, reducing worry by focusing on achievable goals, cultivating optimism, living in the present, and building self-acceptance and authenticity. The program also emphasizes strengthening close relationships and actively valuing happiness (Fordyce, 1983).
Fordyce’s 14 Fundamentals Psychology of Happiness Programme
Delivered over 2–10 weeks in a classroom setting, Fordyce’s program has been tested in multiple studies and shown that the complete 14-step approach is significantly more effective than partial or alternative methods in boosting happiness (Carr, 2022). Participants were encouraged to integrate these principles into daily life, which proved effective over time. Results indicated that those who followed the full program experienced lasting improvements in well-being, with positive outcomes sustained up to one year after the intervention. This long-term effectiveness highlights the program’s potential as a structured and sustainable approach to enhancing happiness and overall well-being (Fordyce, 1983).
5. Person-Centred Approaches
The person-centred approach, developed by Carl Rogers, emerged from the humanistic psychology movement, emphasizing the positive aspects of human nature (Rogers, 1980). Rogers posited that when therapists foster a positive therapeutic alliance through a non-directive dialogue, clients can express their innate motivation towards self-actualization, leading to resolution of their problems. Joseph asserts that the therapeutic alliance, rather than specific techniques, is crucial for effective therapy, supported by evidence highlighting the importance of engaging in therapeutic activities to build this alliance (Joseph, 2006).
Therapists in this model aim to provide clients with unconditional positive regard within an empathic alliance, enabling them to pursue goals aligned with their intrinsic values (Joseph, 2006).
Self-determination theory, rooted in Rogers’ work, suggests that satisfaction of needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy fosters intrinsic motivation, while thwarted needs inhibit self-motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Sheldon’s research applies self-determination theory in clinical settings, promoting behavior change through an understanding of clients’ goals and motivations (Sheldon, 2004). Although empirical studies specifically evaluating person-centred approaches remain limited, the overall efficacy of person-centred experiential psychotherapy is well-supported, highlighting its significance in the broader landscape of positive psychology (Elliott, 2002).
6. Post-Traumatic Growth Therapy
Post-traumatic growth therapy centers on the positive psychological changes that can arise from significant adversity. Research shows that about half of trauma survivors report such growth, which may manifest as enhanced personal strength, improved relationships, increased life appreciation, spiritual transformation, and greater openness to new possibilities (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996). A meta-analysis by Prati and Pietrantoni (2009) highlighted several factors associated with post-traumatic growth, including optimism, religious coping, and social support.
Lawrence Calhoun and Richard Tedeschi developed a therapeutic framework aimed at facilitating this growth, emphasizing the importance of actively processing trauma through recalling, reflecting on, and making sense of the experience (Calhoun & Tedeschi, 2006). This cognitive and emotional processing enables individuals to reconstruct their worldviews and build resilience. The therapist’s role is crucial, as they create a supportive environment for clients to revisit their trauma narratives and explore the shifts in their self-perception and life outlook (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004).
Approaches such as trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction have been effective in enhancing well-being and relational appreciation (Shiyko et al., 2016). This therapy underscores the transformative potential of trauma, suggesting that with proper support, individuals can emerge from difficult experiences with renewed purpose and strength.
7. Solution-Focused Therapy
Solution-focused therapy, founded by Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg, 1988 emphasizes client strengths and resources to address problems rather than focusing on the issues themselves (de Shazer, 1988). The approach is grounded in a hopeful perspective on problem resolution and recognizes clients’ abilities to construct solutions. Techniques such as the “miracle question” encourage clients to visualize their lives post-problem, clarifying goals and fostering a positive direction in therapy (de Shazer & Berg, 1997).
This therapeutic model employs scaling questions to help clients measure progress and articulate their achievements concretely (de Shazer, 1988). Additionally, therapists use compliments to highlight positive qualities, promoting cooperation, while observational and behavioral tasks help clients replicate successful coping strategies (Berg & de Shazer, 1993). While originating within family therapy, solution-focused therapy shares principles with positive psychology, emphasizing personal resilience and resourcefulness.
Although research integrating solution-focused therapy with positive psychology interventions is limited, numerous meta-analyses confirm its effectiveness for various clinical issues (Franklin et al., 2016). However, its specific impact on well-being and strengths requires further exploration. Overall, solution-focused therapy offers a pragmatic and optimistic approach, empowering clients to leverage their resources for meaningful change in their lives.
8 Gratitude Interventions
Exercises that encourage individuals to focus on and express gratitude for the positive aspects of their lives.
Process:
Step 1: Encourage participants to reflect on things they are grateful for in their lives.
Step 2: Write down three things they are grateful for each day or once a week (Gratitude Journal).
Step 3: Express gratitude directly by writing a letter to someone and, if possible, delivering it in person (Gratitude Letter).
Example: Encourage your friend to maintain a gratitude journal where he writes down three things he is grateful for each day. This could include anything from a kind gesture from a colleague to a beautiful sunset.
Research: Emmons and McCullough (2003) conducted a study where participants who kept gratitude journals for 10 weeks reported higher life satisfaction and fewer physical complaints compared to those who focused on daily hassles.
Real life Application: A client writing weekly gratitude letters to loved ones might develop stronger relationships and experience a more positive outlook on life.
9 Savoring Positive Experiences
The process of deliberately paying attention to and enhancing the positive experiences in life.
Process:
Stage 1: Anticipation – Focus on an upcoming positive event and imagine how it will feel.
Stage 2: Savoring the moment – Fully engage in the moment, paying attention to sensory details.
Stage 3: Reminiscing – Reflect on the positive experience afterward to prolong its emotional impact.
Example: When your friend experiences a positive event (like receiving good feedback), he can take a few minutes to savor the moment. This involves fully immersing in the experience, sharing it with others, and reflecting on why it feels good.
Study: Bryant (2003) found that individuals who consciously savor moments, such as taking time to enjoy a meal or watch a sunset, report higher levels of happiness.
Real life Application: A person may reflect on a joyful family vacation, consciously recalling sensory details like the warmth of the sun or the sound of laughter.
10 Acts of Kindness
Performing altruistic acts or kindness to benefit others without expecting anything in return.
Process:
Step 1: Identify opportunities for performing small acts of kindness (e.g., helping a stranger, offering compliments).
Step 2: Set a specific goal, such as performing five acts of kindness per week.
Step 3: Reflect on how these acts make you feel and how they impact others.
Example: Encourage your friend to perform at least one act of kindness each day. This could be as simple as helping a colleague with a task, writing a thank-you note, or volunteering for a local charity.
Study: In Lyubomirsky et al. (2005), participants who performed five acts of kindness per week for six weeks reported increased happiness.
Real life Application: A person might help an elderly neighbor with groceries or leave a positive note for a colleague, both enhancing their own wellbeing and fostering social connection.
11 Strengths Identification and Use
Identifying personal strengths and actively applying them in new ways.
Process:
Step 1: Complete the VIA Character Strengths Survey to identify core personal strengths (e.g., creativity, curiosity, bravery).
Step 2: Develop a plan to use one of these strengths in a new way each day.
Step 3: Reflect weekly on how using strengths in different contexts affected wellbeing.
Example: Have your friend take a strengths assessment like the VIA Survey of Character Strengths. Once he knows his top strengths (e.g., kindness, creativity), he can intentionally use them in daily activities. For instance, if creativity is a strength, he might find new ways to design his lessons or solve problems.
Study: Seligman et al. (2005) found that participants who used their strengths in new ways for one week experienced increased happiness and reduced depressive symptoms for up to six months.
Real life Application: An individual who identifies “kindness” as a core strength might decide to mentor a colleague or volunteer at a local charity.
12 Optimism Training
Helping individuals adopt an optimistic explanatory style, focusing on interpreting events with a positive outlook.
Process:
Step 1: Teach individuals to identify negative automatic thoughts that arise in challenging situations.
Step 2: Use cognitive restructuring techniques to dispute negative thoughts and generate more optimistic, realistic interpretations.
Step 3: Set achievable goals that align with an optimistic outlook on the future.
Example:
Study: Peterson (2000) demonstrated that learned optimism can reduce the risk of depression, particularly when individuals adopt an optimistic explanatory style that views setbacks as temporary and specific, rather than permanent and pervasive.
Reallife Application: A student might change their interpretation of a bad grade from “I’m a failure” to “This is just one exam, and I can do better on the next one.”
13 Mindfulness and Meditation
Cultivating a state of awareness and presence in the current moment without judgment.
Process:
Stage 1: Focused Attention – Begin with focusing on the breath or a specific sensation.
Stage 2: Open Monitoring – Gradually broaden awareness to include thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations without judgment.
Stage 3: Nonreactive Observation – Train the mind to observe these sensations without trying to change or avoid them.
Example: Your friend can set aside 10-15 minutes each day for mindfulness meditation. This involves sitting quietly, focusing on breathing, and gently bringing attention back to the breath whenever the mind wanders.
Study: Brown and Ryan (2003) found that individuals who engaged in regular mindfulness practices reported enhanced wellbeing, reduced stress, and greater self awareness.
Real life Application: A busy professional might use a daily 10minute mindfulness session to reduce work related stress and improve focus
14 Positive Relationships
Enhancing social connections and relationships to foster a sense of belonging and support.
Process:
Step 1: Identify key relationships that provide emotional support.
Step 2: Strengthen these bonds by engaging in active listening, expressing appreciation, and spending quality time with loved ones.
Step 3: Set relationship enhancing goals, such as improving communication or resolving conflicts constructively.
Study: Diener and Seligman (2002) found that individuals with strong, supportive relationships reported the highest levels of happiness.
Real life Application: A person might schedule regular coffee dates with a friend or commit to weekly family dinners to nurture close relationships.
15 Hope Interventions
Teaching individuals how to develop realistic goals and create actionable pathways to reach them.
Process:
Step 1: Set clear, meaningful goals.
Step 2: Identify potential obstacles and develop multiple strategies (pathways) to achieve those goals.
Step 3: Cultivate a sense of agency by focusing on personal strengths and successes that foster a belief in one’s ability to achieve the goal.
Example:
Study: Snyder et al. (2000) found that hope theory interventions significantly increased goal attainment and overall wellbeing by enhancing an individual’s sense of control and motivation.
Real life Application: A job seeker might set a goal to secure a position within three months, develop alternative plans such as networking and improving their resume, and track progress to stay motivated.
16 Self Compassion
Encouraging individuals to treat themselves with kindness during moments of failure or difficulty, rather than being overly self-critical.
Process:
Step 1: Teach individuals to recognize moments of suffering or selfcriticism and respond with kindness, understanding, and support, much like they would treat a close friend.
Step 2: Encourage mindful awareness of negative emotions without overidentification or avoidance.
Step 3: Engage in selfcompassion exercises, such as writing a compassionate letter to oneself in times of difficulty.
Example:
Study: Neff (2003) found that individuals who practiced selfcompassion had lower levels of anxiety and depression, along with higher emotional resilience.
Reallife Application: A person struggling with a professional setback might engage in a selfcompassion exercise to counter harsh selfcriticism and promote emotional recovery
17. Flow Experiences
Engaging in activities where the individual is fully immersed, experiencing a sense of timelessness and focused energy.
Process:
Step 1: Identify activities that balance high skill with an appropriate level of challenge.
Step 2: Remove distractions and set clear goals for the activity.
Step 3: Engage fully in the activity, paying close attention to each step and maintaining focus.
Study: Csikszentmihalyi (1990) described how artists, athletes, and professionals experience flow during periods of deep engagement, often leading to peak performance and happiness.
Reallife Application: An athlete might experience flow while playing a sport at a high level, where they lose track of time and become fully immersed in the game.
Challenges and Limitations
While PPIs show considerable benefits, their effectiveness may decline without consistent reinforcement. For many, adopting positive psychology practices as a daily habit can be challenging, especially without a structured program or professional guidance (Carr, 2022). Furthermore, not all PPIs are uniformly effective across different populations and cultural contexts. Variability in individual preferences, life experiences, and values may impact PPI efficacy, necessitating tailored interventions (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).
Another significant limitation is the potential for PPIs to be misinterpreted as a “quick fix” for mental health challenges. Although PPIs enhance well-being, they are not a substitute for addressing severe mental health issues requiring clinical treatment. Individuals with complex mental health conditions may need additional support beyond positive psychology techniques to manage their symptoms effectively (Duckworth, Steen, & Seligman, 2005). Lastly, without professional support, individuals may not benefit from PPIs in the same way as they would with guided intervention, highlighting the need for structured support when applying PPIs independently (Rashid & Seligman, 2018).
Currently, PPIs are criticized for being a Western-, Educated-, Industrialized-, Rich- and Democratic- (WEIRD) enterprise, neglecting under-privileged, under-represented, and under-served groups’ experiences and expressions of strength, while also ignoring the cultural origins of the positive states, traits, and behaviors PPIs aim to improve (Hendriks et al., 2019; Stander and van Zyl, 2019; Worthington and Van Zyl, 2021).
Conclusion
PPIs represent a valuable approach to enhancing well-being by building on individual strengths, promoting positive emotions, and fostering personal growth. By focusing on well-being rather than pathology, PPIs offer a promising avenue for improving mental health and resilience.
Evidence shows that PPIs can lead to lasting improvements in life satisfaction, reduce stress and anxiety, and promote a positive orientation toward life. However, challenges remain, including ensuring consistent practice and adapting interventions to diverse individual needs. With continued research and development, PPIs have the potential to become a cornerstone of mental health interventions, offering accessible ways for people to flourish.
References for Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs)
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